Design of a New Security Protocol Using Hybrid Cryptography

Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 DESIGN OF A NEW SECURITY PROTOCOL USING HYBRID CRYPTOGRAPHY ALGORITHMS S. Subasree and N. K. Sakthivel School of Computing, Sastra University, Thanjavur – 613401, Tamil Nadu, INDIA. ABSTRACT A Computer Network is an interconnected group of autono mous computing nodes, which use a well defined, mutually agreed set of rules and conventions known as protocols, interact with one -another meaningfully and allow resource sharing preferably in a predictable and controllable manner.Communication has a majo r impact on today? s business. It is desired to communicate data with high security. Security Attacks compromises the security and hence various Symmetric and Asymmetric cryptographic algorithms have been proposed to achieve the security services such as Authentication, Confidentiality, Integrity, Non-Repudiation and Availability. At present, various types of cryptographic algorithms provide high s ecurity to information on controlled networks. These algorithms are required to provide data security and users authenticity.To improve the strength of these security algorithms, a new security protocol for on line transaction can be designed using combination of both symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic techniques. This protocol provides three cryptographic pr imitives such as integrity, confidentiality and authentication. These three primitives can be achieved with the help of Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Dual -RSA algorithm and Message Digest MD5. That is it uses Elliptic Curve Cryptography for encryption, Dual -RSA algorithm for authentication and MD-5 for integrity.This new security protocol has been designed for better security with integrity using a combination of both symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic techniques. Keywords: Network Security, Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Dual-RSA, Message Digest-5. 1. INTRODUCTION Curiosity is one of the most common human traits, matche d by the wish to conceal private information. Spies and the military all resort to information hiding to pass messages securely, sometimes deliberately including misleading information [12]. Steganography, a mechanism for hiding information in apparently innocent pictures, may be used on its own or with other methods.Encryption fundamentally consists of scrambling a message so that its contents are not readily accessible while decryption is the reversing of that process[14]. These processes depend on particular algorithms, known as ciphers. Suitably scrambled text is known as cipher text while the original is, not surprising ly, plain text. Readability is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for something to be plain text. The original might well not make any obvious sense when read, as would be the case, for example, if something already encrypted were being further encrypted.It's also quite possible to construct a mechanism whose output is readable text but which actually bears no relationship to the unencrypted original. A key is used in conjunction with a cipher to encrypt or decrypt text. The key might appear meaningful, as would be the case with a character string used as a password, but this transformation is irrelevant, the functionality of a key lies in its being a string of bits determining the mapping of the plain text to the cipher text. 1. 1 Why we need cryptography?Protecting access to information for reasons of security is still a major reason for using cryptography. However, it's also increasingly used for identification of individuals, for authentication and for non -repudiation. This is particularly important with the growth of the Internet, global trading and other activities[12]. The identity of e -mail and Web users is trivially easy to conceal or to forge, and secure authentication can give those interacting remotely confidence that they're dealing with the right person and that a message hasn't been forged or changed.In commercia l situations, non-repudiation [12] is an important concept ensuring that if, say, a contract has been agreed upon one party can't then renege by claiming that they didn't actually agree or did so at some different time when, perhaps, a price was higher or lower. Digital signatures and digital timestamps are used in such situations, often in conjunction with other mechanisms such as message digests and digital certificates. 95 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010The range of uses for cryptography and related techniques is considerable and growing steadily. Passwords are common but the protection they offer is often illusory, perhaps because security policies within many organizations aren't well thought out and their use causes more problems and inconvenience than seems worth it[14,15]. In many cases where passwords are used, for example in protecting word processed documents, the ciphers used are extremely lightweight and can be attac ked without difficulty using one of a range of freely available cracking programs. 2.TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMS 2. 1. Elliptic Curve Encryption When using elliptic curves in cryptography[11], we use various properties of the points on the curve , and functions on them as well. Thus, one common task to complete when using elliptic curves as an encryption tool is to find a way to turn information m into a point P on a curve E. We assume the information m is already written as a number. There are many ways to do this, as simple as setting the letters a = 0, b = 1, c = 2, . . . or there are other methods, such as ASCII, which accomplish the same task.Now, if we have E : y2 = x3 + Ax + B (mod p), a curve in Weierstrass form, we want to let m = x. But, this will only work if m3 + Am + B is a square modulo p. Since only half of the numbers modulo p are squares, we only have about a 50% chance of this occurring. Thus, we will try to embed the information m into a value that is a squa re. Pick some K such that 1/2K is an acceptable failure rate for embedding the information into a point on the curve. Also, make sure that (m + 1)K ; p. Let xj = mK + j for j = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,K ? 1 Compute x 3j + Axj + B.Calculate its square root yj (mod p), if possible. If there is a square root, we let our point on E representing m be P m = (xj , yj) If there is no square root, try the next value of j[4,5]. So, for each value of j we have a probability of about 1/2 that xj is a square modulo p. Thus, the probability that no xj is a square is about 1/2K, which was the acceptable failure rate[6]. In most common applications, there are many real-life problems that may occur to damage an attempt at sending a message, like computer or electricity failure.Since people accept a certain 16 amount of failure due to uncontrollable phenomenon, it makes sense that they could agree on an acceptable rate of failure for a controllable feature of the process. Though we will not use this specific process in our algorithms[10]. 2. 2. Dual RSA In practice, the RSA decryption computations are performed in p and q and then combined via the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) to obtain the desired solution in ? N, instead of directly computing the exponentiation in ? N. This decreases the computational costs of decryption In two ways.First, computations in ? p and ? q are more efficient than the same computations in ? N since the elements are much smaller. Second, from Lagrange? s Theorem, we can replace the private exponent d with dp = d mod (p – 1) for the computation in ? p and with dq = d mod (q – 1) for the computation in ? p, which reduce the cost for each exponentiation when d is larger than the primes. It is common to refer to dp and dq as the CRT -exponents. The first method to use the CRT for decryption was proposed by Quisquater and Couvreur [7,8].Since the method requires knowledge of p and q, the key generation algorithm needs to be modified to output the private key (d, p, q) instead of (d,N). Given the pri vate key (d, p,q) and a valid ciphertext C ? ? N, the CRTdecryption algorithm is as follows: 1) Compute Cp = Cdp mod p. 2) Compute Cq = Cdq mod q. 3) Compute M0 = (Cq – Cp) . p-1 mod q. 4) Compute the plaintext M = Cp + M0 . p. This version of CRT-decryption is simply Garner? s Algorithm for the Chinese Remainder Theorem applied to RSA.If the key generation algorithm is further modified to output the private key (dp, dq, p, q, p -1 mod q), the computational cost of CRT-decryption is dominated by the modular exponentiations in steps 1) and 2) of the algorithm. When the primes p and q are roughly the same size (i. e. , half the size of the modulus), the computational cost for decryption using CRT -decryption (without parallelism) is theoretically 1/4 the cost for decryption using the original method[7]. Using RSA-Small-e along with CRT-decryption allows for extremely fast encryption and decryption that is at most four times faster than standard RSA. 96IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol 2. 3 MD5 Algorithm MD5[2] consists of 64 of these operations, grouped in four rounds of 16 operations. F is a nonlinear function; one function is used in each round. Mi denotes a 32 -bit block of the message input, and Ki denotes a 32 -bit constant, different for each operation. s is a shift value, which also varies for each operation[1]. MD5 processes a variable length message into a fixed -length output of 128 bits. The input message is broken up into chunks of 512-bit blocks; the message is padded so that its length is divisible by 512.The padding works as follows: first a single bit, 1, is appended to the end of the message. This is followed by as many zeros as are required to bring the length of the message up to 64 bits less than a multiple of 512. The re maining bits are filled up with a 64-bit integer representing the length of the original message[9]. The main M D5 algorithm operates on a 128 -bit state, divided into four 32-bit words, denoted A, B, C and D. These are initialized to certain fixed constants. The main algorithm then operates on each 512 -bit message block in turn, each block modifying the state.The processing of a message block consists of four similar stages, termed rounds; each round is composed of 16 similar operations based on a non -linear function F, modular addition, and left rotation. Many message digest functions have been proposed and are in use today. Here are just a few like HMAC, MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA, SHA-1. Here, we concentrate on MD5, one of the widely used digest functions. 3. HYBRID SECURITY PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE It is desired to communicate data with high security. At present, various types of cryptographic algorithms provide high security to information on controlled networks.These algorithms are required to provide data security and users authenticity. This new security protocol has been designed for better security using a combination of both symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic techniques. Figure 1 : Hybrid Protocol Architecture As shown in the figure, the Symmetric Key Cryptographic Techniques such as Elliptic Curve Cryptography, and MD5 are used to achieve both the Confidentiality and Integrity. The Asymmetric Key Cryptography technique, Dual RSA used for Authentication. The above discussed three primitives can be achieved with the help of this Security Protocol Architecture.The Architecture is as shown in the Figure 1. As shown in the figure, the Symmetric Key Cryptographic Techniques such as Elliptic Curve Cryptography, and MD5 are used to achieve bo th the Confidentiality and Integrity. The Asymmetric Key Cryptography technique, Dual RSA used for Authentication. 97 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 The new Security Protocol has been designed for better security. It is a combination of both the Symmetric and Asymmetric Cryptog raphic Techniques.It provides the Cryptographic Primitives such as Integrity, Confidentiality and Authentication. The given plain text can be encrypted with the help of Elliptic Curve Cryptography, ECC and the derived cipher text can be communicated to the destination through any secured channel. Simultaneously, the Hash value is calculated through MD5 for the same plain text, which already has been converted into the cipher text by ECC. This Hash value has been encrypted with Dual RSA and the encrypted message of this Hash value also sent to destination. The intruders may try to hack the original information from the encrypted messages.He may be trapped both the encrypted messages of plain text and the hash value and he will try to decrypt these messages to get original one. He might be get the hash value and it is impossible to extract the plain text from the cipher text, because, the hash value is encrypted with Dual RSA and the plain text is encrypted with ECC. Hence, the messag e can be communicated to the destination with highly secured manner. The new hash value is calculated with MD5 for the received originals messages and then it is compared with decrypted hash message for its integrity.By which, we can ensure that either the origi nal text being altered or not in the communication medium. This is the primitive feature of this hybrid protocol. 4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION 4. 1 Comparison of RSA and Dual RSA 1) The Public Key Algorithms, RSA and Dual-RSA have been implemented in VC++ and we got the following results. As shown in the Figure 2, the original message for communication is stored in MyFile. txt and its size is 547 Bytes, which is shown in the report file. Figure 2 : Input File MyFile. txt Figure 3 shows that the project main menu, which consists of various features. They are i. RSA Encryption, ii.RSA Decryption, iii. Dual RSA Encryption, iv. Dual RSA Decryption, and v. Graph, which is used to compare the computational costs of both the RSA and D ual -RSA Figure 4 shows that RSA Encryption and Figure 5 shows that Dual RSA encryption. From the figure 6 it is clear that the RSA take one block at a time for encryption and decryption at a time. But the dual RSA take more time for encryption of two block at a time, but it take less time for decryption of two blocks. So, the RSA encryption and decryption time is greater than Dual RSA because Dual RSA perform the encryption and decryption operation for two blocks. 8 IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol Figure 3 : Process of RSA and Dual RSA Encryption/Decryption Figure 4 : RSA Encryption 99 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Figure 5 : Dual – RSA Encryption 5. 2 Performance analysis of RSA and Dual RSA Figure 6 : RSA vs Dual RSA 100 IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol Figure 7 : Computational costs of RSA vs Dual RSA Figure 6 s hows that the Perfor mance Analysis of RSA vs Dual RSA.From this figure, it is clear that the total computation time for Encryption and Decryption of Dual -RSA is less than that of ordinary RSA. From the Figure 7, it is observed that the total computation time for Encrypt ion and Decryption of RSA is 4314ms as compared with the total computation time for Encryption and Decryption of Dual – RSA is 3203ms for the file size 547 Bytes. From the analysis it is clear that Dual RSA is better than RSA algorithm. So, for authentic ation we are going to use Dual RSA. Dual RSA take two block for encryption and decryption simultaneously. . 3 Results of Hybrid protocol Architecture Here, we are using three different mode of operation. The sender, Receiver and Intruder. We have t o select the mode and process the information. The following figure represent the three different mode. Figure 8 : Mode selection If the mode is the sender, then we have to provide the key val ue and messages in t he specified location. Figure 9 : Sender Mode 101 Subasree & Sakthivel ? Design of a New Security Protocol IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Figure 10 shows that the Receiver received the sender message with the key.From the figure, it is noted that, the intruder also received the key and not the message. Because, the message is encrypted with ECC and key is encrypted by using Dual RSA. And also noted that, the intruder derived different key for decryption, which is equivalent to the original key. Even though the intruder got the key he cannot able to get the orig inal message because of Dual RSA. Because of Dual RSA we got two advantages one is the message cannot be decrypted and time required to perform the encryption and decryption operation less compare to RSA because Dual RSA perform encryption and decryption by two block at a time.The new Public Key Cryptographic algorithm, Dual – RSA has been developed for better performance in terms of computation costs and memory storage requirements. It is also called RSA -CRT, because it is used Chinese Remainder Theorem, CRT for its Decryption. From the output, it is noted that Dual -RSA improved the performance of RSA in terms of computation cost and memory storage requirements. It achieves parallelism. The CRT Decryption is achieved roughly ? times faster than original RSA. Figure 10 : Secured communication of Hybrid Protocol 102 IJRRAS 2 (2) ? February 2010 Subasree & Sakthivel ?Design of a New Security Protocol 6. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] B. den Boer and A. Bosselaers, â€Å"An attack on the last two rounds of MD4†, Advances in Cryptology, Crypto ? 05, pages 194-203, Springer-Verlag, 2005. B. den Boer and A. Bosselaers, â€Å"Collisions for the compression function of MD5†, Advances in Cryptology, Eurocrypt „07, pages 293-304, Springer-Verlag, 2007. D. Bleichenbacher and A. May, â€Å"New attacks on RSA with small CRTexponent in Pub lic Key Cryptography†, PKC 2006, vol ume 3968 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 1 –13. Springer-Verlag, 2006. D. Bleichenbacher and A.May, â€Å"New attacks on RSA with small secret CRT -exponents,† in Public Key Cryptology—PKC 2006, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. New York: Springer, 2006, vol. 3958, pp. 1–13. D. Boneh and G. Durfee, â€Å"Cryptanalysis of RSA with private key d less than N ,† IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 1339–1349, Jul. 2000. E. Jochemsz and A. May, â€Å"A polynomial time attack on standard RSA with private CRT -exponents†, 2007. Hung-Min Sun, and et al. , â€Å"Dual RSA and its Security Analysis†, IEEE Tra nsaction on Information Theory,Aug 2007, pp 2922 – 2933,2007 [8] H. -M. Sun, M. J.Hinek, and M. -E. Wu, On the design of Rebalanced-RSA, revised version of [37] Centre for Applied Cryptographic Research, Technical Report CACR 2005 -35, 2005 [Online]. Available: http://www. cacr. math. uwaterloo. ca/te chreports/2005/cacr2005 -35. pdf [9] H. Dobbertin, â€Å"The Status of MD5 after a Recent Attack†, CryptoBytes, 2(2): 1-6, 2007. [10] M. J. Hinek, â€Å"Another look at small RSA exponents,† in Topics in Cryptology-CT-RSA 2006, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, D. Pointcheval, Ed. New York: Springer, 2006, vol. 3860, pp. 82 –98. [11] N. Gura, A. Patel, A. Wander, H. Eberle, and S.C. Shantz, â€Å"Comparing Elliptic Curve Cryptography and RSA on 8-bit CPUs†. Proceedings of Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems (CHES 2004), 6th International Workshop, pages 119 –132, 2004. [12] Ravindra Kumar Chahar and et. al. , â€Å" Design of a new Security Protocol†, IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Multimedia Applications, pp 132 – 134, 2007 [13] Ramaraj, E and Karthikeyan, S, â€Å" A Design of Enhanced Security Protocol for Wireless Communication using Hybrid Encryption Technique, Indian Jo urnal of Computing Technology, pp 22 -29, May, 2006. 14] S. D. Galbraith, C. Heneghan, and J. F. McKee, â€Å"Tunable balancing of RSA†, 2005. Updated ACISP 2005. version of [15] S. D. Galbraith, C. Heneghan, and J. F. McKee, â€Å"Tunable balancing of RSA,† in Proc. Inf. Security and Privacy, 10th Australasian Conf. , ACISP 2005, C. Boyd and J. M. G. Nieto, Eds. , 2005, vol. 3574, pp. 280 – 292, Springer, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. BIOGRAPHY Dr. S Subasree got Bachelor Degree from Madras university in 1991 and she done her post graduate degree from Bharathidasan Univeristy in 1995 and M. hil from Manonmaniam Sundaranar Univeristy in 2001. She done her M. Tech and Ph. D in SASTRA University in 2006 and 2009 respectively. She got 13 years teaching experience. Now she will be serving as a Senior Assistant Professor in SASTRA Univeristy, Tamil Nadu, India. She has published more than 15 papers in International and National Journals and Conferences. Her rese arch area includes Network Security, High Performance Soft Computing Techniques, Communication Network, and B iometric Cryptography. Dr. N K Sakthivel got Bachelor Degree from Madras university in 1991 and she one her post graduate degree from Bharathidasan Univeristy in 1994 and M. phil from Bharathidasan Univeristy in 2000. She done her M. Tech and Ph. D in SASTRA University in 2004 and 2009 respectively. She got 15 years teaching experience. Now She will be serving as a Professor in SASTRA Univeristy, Tamil Nadu, India. She has published more than 18 papers in International and National Journals and Conferences. Her research area includes High Speed Communication Networks, Network Security, High Performance Computing, and Biometric Cryptography. 103

Force Majeure In Construction Contracts Essay

In handling a project, one of the most important is looking at the project plan. In the project plan, it almost includes all the necessary information from the high level up to not so much low level or details of the project. It is also the starting point of any project which is being initiated mostly by over-all project manager, Project manager must not only look at the financial or what we call budget or the resources that will be needed or even the schedules or time frame of the project. What are most important actually are the main obligations and what do we expect for the contractor, if wee are talking about construction project. Its main obligation and what are not part of their obligation. The most interesting part is what is not their part of work and what are the liabilities that they may have while doing the project as well as after the project. Questions like, what if†¦this happen, are they liable to it? All of the things that would possibly happen must be clearly stated in the contract, because if the building collapses due to an earthquake, what are the liabilities, if there is how it can be measured or be said that they have such liability to the building they have constructed. That is the main purpose of this paper, to discuss clearly what force majeure is, what are the effects to the parties involved and how it can be applied well. What is Force Majeure? Its Scope and Existence Force Majeure comes from French term meaning â€Å"great force† it is a common clause which primarily frees obligation of one or both of the parties from certain liability that are usually unexpected and commonly called as Act of God. These are such as: flood, earthquake, war, snowstorm, etc. Force majeure is not intended for the obligating parties to be excused to certain obligation, this is just intended to have it clearly stated in the contract in order for the parties to be none liable to certain occurrence which are obvious to be not within their responsibility. But, there are some cases wherein force majeure is customized in some projects where liability may also occur and not just claiming all into as force majeure clause which in any case the ruling will all depend on the gravity of the situation and looking again at the written and agreed contract. In other words force majeure is also stated as exceptional matters or events that are beyond the control of either party or overwhelming superhuman events. Like in the case of military, force majeure may be represented by a different meaning. It pertains to an event either it is internal or external, for instance a military vessel that allows to enter normally in another area without restriction or penalty, a very recent example is in the US Navy aircraft that landed at the Chinese territory after a collision with a Chinese fighter, where the aircraft is allowed to land without any restriction, as it was stated under the principle of force majeure. (Force Majeure, 2007). Effects to the Parties As earlier stated the effects of force majeure have provided great effect for both parties. The force majeure clause since it can be drafted differently, it may assume differently. That is why it should be well enlightened with clear use of precise words and must take into consideration the effect of nature and most especially it must include the general terms of the contract. Take for instance in the case of C. Czarnikow Ltd. v. Centralla Handlu Zagranicznego Rolimpex (1977) the English Court of Appeal held the defendants could in the circumstances of the case rely upon a force majeure clause which provided that if delivery was prevented, inter alia, by ‘government intervention beyond the seller’s control’ the contract would be void without penalty. But in some cases, employers or contractors may be relieve from their main responsibility like another example is when the union of the company set a strike. Another good example is when the contractors may ask for extension of the project, due to devastation of typhoon in the construction site, which is most likely very logical. But the over-all effect of these situations will be tremendous since it would impact the plan of the company. But, the company and contractors, must still need to double check clearly if what was agreed upon in the contract, is the situation really covers and part of the force majeure clause or not. Because, there are certain instances that it would still be part of the liability of the party or parties. (Hussin, Abdul Aziz, n. d. ). Force Majeure in Contracts It is very clear based from it sets of meaning and rules that there is no damages that are recoverable from a party who has been prevented from performing their contract by force majeure. That is why an event that will not be force majeure except: (1) it makes performance of the contract impossible; (2) it was unforeseeable; and (3) it was irresistible, both in its occurrence and its effects. Importance of Force Majeure The main importance of force majeure clause in a contract, most especially in a construction project is that it does not only provide a clear cut obligation for both of the parties. It also gives a deeper understanding by both parties, what are must to be included in the force majeure clause and what are not. Because, not all must be included or else there are times wherein contractors may also be just relieving themselves to certain obligation which might come and with that it will be an unfair treatment for the requesting company. Like for example, a coal supply agreement, the mining company may seek to have â€Å"geological risk† included as a Force Majeure event, however the mining company should be doing extensive exploration and analysis of its geological reserves and should not even be negotiating a coal supply agreement if it cannot take the risk that there may be a geological limit to its coal supply from time to time. The outcome of that negotiation, of course, depends on the relative bargaining power of the parties and there will be cases where Force Majeure clauses can be used by a party effectively to escape liability for horrific performance. The General Effect of Force Majeure To further understand force majeure concept, these are the many general effects of force majeure: (1) neither party will be liable if it is prevented from performing its operation by a force majeure event; (2) a force majeure event is something external to the parties (such as an â€Å"act of God†, or disruption to their equipment or machinery); (3) the event should be both beyond their control and such that they could not have prevented the event, or the consequent failure in performance, by the exercise of due diligence; (4) an obligation to pay money will not be suspended by a force majeure event; (5) the party affected by the force majeure must notify the other party and use due diligence to remove the disruption and resume performance of its obligations. In other words, the effect must be beyond the control of both parties and the other party must know the situation in order to also make some adjustment on the issues. (Adlam, JG, 2007). Maui Gas Contract In the company’s contract, it clearly defined and enlisted the following situations or events that will be part of the force majeure clause, and these are: acts of God, strikes, lockouts or other industrial disturbances, acts of the Queen’s enemies, sabotage, wars, blockades, insurrections, riots, epidemics, landslides, lightning, earthquakes, floods, storms, fires, washouts, arrests and restraints of rulers and peoples, civil disturbances, explosions, breakage of or accident to machinery or lines of pipe, freezing of wells or delivery facilities, well blowouts, craterings, the order of any court or governmental authority, the necessity for making repairs to or reconditioning wells, machinery, equipment or pipelines (not resulting from the fault or negligence of such party), or any other act or omission occasioned by any cause beyond the control of the party invoking this Article. But it has to be well observed and studied if both parties did not perform negligence towa rds its duty. Because if there will be cases proven that there are failure in the duties made by either parties and at the same time reasonable. There will also be no such condition or occasion affecting the performance of this Agreement by any party shall continue to relieve the party affected thereby from liability or to hold in abeyance a cause of action, after the expiration of a reasonable period of time within which by the use of due diligence such party could have remedied the situation preventing its performance, nor shall any such circumstance or occurrence relieve any party from its obligation to make payment of amounts then due hereunder nor shall any such circumstance or occurrence affected thereby from liability or hold in abeyance a cause of action unless such party shall give notice of such circumstance or occurrence in writing with reasonable promptness; and like notice shall be given upon termination of such circumstance or occurrence. (Adlam, JG, 2007). Atlantic Paper Stock Ltd. v. St. Anne-Nackawic Pulp & Paper Co. , decided by the Supreme Court of Canada in 1975. In this case the mill company had a force m ajeure clause in a contract with the company that supplied waste paper. The force majeure clause excused the mill from purchasing its required amount of waste paper as a result of an act of God, the Queen’s or public enemies, war, the authority of law, strikes, the destruction or damage to production facilities, or the nonavailability of markets for pulp or corrugating medium. The latter condition became important when the markets failed. It was necessary for the court to determine the meaning of this event. The Chief Justice comments on interpretation of force majeure clauses have shaped all subsequent cases. An act of God clause or force majeure clause, and it is within such a clause that the words â€Å"non-availability of markets† are found, generally operates to discharge a contracting party when a supervening, sometimes supernatural, event, beyond control of either party, makes performance impossible. (Construction Contracts: Defining & Shifting the Risk, 2004). Application of the Interstate: and Sales Full Disclosure Act to Condominium Projects and Single Family Homes This is with regards to contract provision and circumstances of non-performance as well as the focus on force majeure clause. That it must be carefully stated in order to ensure that they will not be interpreted by courts as undercutting the obligation to complete construction within two years. As with limitation of damages sought by purchasers, state law controls in determining whether or not a specific provision undercuts the seller’s obligation to complete construction within two years. In this project the possibility of impossibility of performance due to unexpected and uncontrolled event is limited. Because this can only happen if one of the party completely discharged its obligation under the contract. The only recognize part of force majeure in this case may come from â€Å"bad whether† which may also cover some instances or events that may affect the implementation of the projects, such as earthquake, flood, strikes, fires, etc. In other words, it was clearly stated that non-performance may not be possible to be part of the force majeure clause since it can only happen if one of the partner completely abandoned or removed its obligation while the list of events that will be covered under force majeure was clearly to avoid confusion. (Chasnow, Robert, 2007). Hungary 10 December 1996 Budapest Arbitration proceeding Vb 96074 This case was actually between Yugoslavian company and Hungarian Company. The Yugoslavian company sold and delivered caviar to a Hungarian company. Based on their agreed contract â€Å"the buyer has to pick up the fish eggs at the seller’s address and take the goods to his facilities in Hungary†. Payment was due two weeks after the delivery of the goods, at which time the UN embargo against Yugoslavia took effect in Hungary. The seller assigned the claim for the price of the goods to a company located in Cyprus. The buyer acknowledged the assignment, but could not pay on the basis that the UN embargo was a force majeure. The arbitral court found that the damage caused by force majeure had to be borne by the party to whom the risk had passed the buyer. In this connection, the arbitral court found it necessary to point out that the risk of freight had to be borne by the buyer, unless the contract of the parties or the applicable law provided otherwise as stated in article 67 of CISG. The [buyer] could not be exculpated by proving that the damage was owing to an act or omission of the seller based from the article 66 of CISG. The result was that the court held that the buyer was obliged to pay the price of the delivered goods with interest. (Hungary 10 December 1996 Budapest Arbitration proceeding Vb 96074, 1996). Case T-41/97 R, Antillean Rice Mills NV v Council, Order of the Court of First Instance of 21 March 1997, [1997] ECR II-447 In this case the Antillean Rice Mills exports rice from the Dutch Antilles to the EC Council Regulation No. 304/97 which has introduced a safeguard measure in the form of a tariff quota for the period of 1 January to 30 April 1997. The safeguard measure was justified because of the instability of the Community market of a certain type of milled rice, Indica, which was being sold at a price considerably lower than the intervention price. Antillean Rice Mills brought an action for annulment of the aforesaid Regulation before the Court of First Instance and asked the Court to suspend its application during the course of the action. The applicant argued that if interim measures were not granted, the company risked suffering serious and irreparable harm; first because it would have to dismiss 80 out of a total of 117 employees, with consequent loss of know-how and, second, because it risked losing its business relationships and market shares due to the impossibility of satisfying the orders of its clients. The Court dismissed the application on the basis that the applicant failed to prove the irreparable nature of the damage caused by the immediate implementation of the measure. According to settled case law, `damage of financial nature is not in principle considered to be serious and irreparable’, unless the alleged damage threatens the existence of the company concerned or it cannot be quantified. The alleged temporary loss of productivity with the consequent restructuring of the company and loss of market shares were not found to be irreparable damage that could not be rectified by appropriate compensation if the Regulation was annulled. Second, the suspension would deprive the Regulation of its effectiveness in the event that the main plea was dismissed and the Regulation upheld. If low-price rice imported from the OCTs continued to overflow the market, the Community rice producers would have no incentive to change over to Indica rice, which was the purpose of the safeguard measure. In this situation, since permanent damage was not proved, the Court upheld the Community interest in the direct application of the actions. (Case T-41/97 R, Antillean Rice Mills NV v Council, Order of the Court of First Instance of 21 March 1997, [1997] ECR II-447, n. d. ). Conclusion In this paper it shows that force majeur does not immediately means that it can derived from an event that are beyond the control of the parties or act of God, like earthquake, flood, etc. It can also include certain damage to production, like machine breakdowns and strikes by employees. It also stated here that force majeur must be carefully studied and validated before any project may be started. Obligations of both parties must also be specified in the contract in order not to encounter confusion on what is really part of the force majeure clause and those that are purely obligatory to both parties. References Adlam, JG. â€Å"Force Majeure Events Commercial and Legal Consequences. † Ministry of Economic Development – Crown Minerals. 28 August 2007 â€Å"Case T-41/97 R, Antillean Rice Mills NV v Council, Order of the Court of First Instance of 21 March 1997, [1997] ECR II-447. † International Trade Developments, Including Commercial Defence Actions XIII. n. d. Chasnow, Robert. â€Å"Application of the Interstate :and Sales Full Disclosure Act to Condominium Projects and Single Family Homes. † Holland+Knight. 2007 â€Å"Construction Contracts: Defining & Shifting the Risk. † Stewart McKelvey. 7 July 2004 â€Å"Firma Milch-, Fett- und Eierkontor GmbH v Bundesanstalt fur landwirtschaftliche Marktordnung, Reference for a preliminary ruling: Verwaltungsgericht Frankfurt am Main – Germany, Butter from stock – Force majeure. † European Court reports 1979. 1979 â€Å"Force Majeure. † Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 18 October 2007 < http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Force_majeure> â€Å"Hungary 10 December 1996 Budapest Arbitration proceeding Vb 96074. † CISG Case Presentation. 1996 Hussin, Abdul Aziz. â€Å"Force Majeure Clause. † University Sains Malaysia. n. d. Eriksen, Eivind. â€Å"Terrorism and Force Majeure in International Contracts. † Bond Law Review. 2004

Psychological and social processes in the development of drug addiction Essay

Psychological and social processes in the development of drug addiction Introduction            Drug addiction can be defined as a compulsive need to use drugs in order to function normally. It can also be defined as primary, chronic, neurobiological disease with genetic, psychosocial and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. It is characterized by behaviors that include one of the following: impaired control over the drug use, compulsive use, continued use despite the harm it does on the individual and its craving.            When an individual persists in the use of alcohol or other drugs despite the problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdraw symptoms when use is reduced or stopped.            Some of the most important things to know about addiction are that it is fundamentally about compulsive behavior and that such habits originate outside consciousness; from the unconscious mind. It is also important to know that addiction could be heritable meaning that family background and genetics play a big role. Also, people with additions often have psychiatric disorders and that it is characterized by frequent relapse (one should not expect to overcome addiction on the first try.) Another important thing to note is that different psychotherapy all produces similar results (Cohen, 1985, p.98)..            Drugs that cause addiction include both legal and illegal drugs as well as prescription or over the counter drugs. Addictive drugs also include a large number of substrates that are currently considered to have no medical value and are not available over the counter or by prescription. Several theories of drug addiction exist, some of the main ones being genetic predisposition, the self-medication theory, and factors involved with social/economic development. It has long been established that genetic or biological factors along with social and psychological factors are the main contributors of addiction (Bier, 1962, 74). Biological development of drug addiction Substance abuse and genetics            Genetics is one factor in addiction. The development of an addiction is influenced by multiple biological, familial psychological and social cultural factors. In our societies every one has access to drugs and alcohol, some people use them and other people become addicted. However, not all people who use substances will become addicted dependent or even use them regularly. Similar upbringing, environmental factors rate of abuse for a drug and even peer influence still do not mean that people will struggle with drug addiction.            Genetics account up to around half of the reasons for a person becoming addicted. There ire no specific genes for addiction though there are a number of biological and genetic factors that make someone more or less vulnerable to becoming an addict. Genetics are thought to contribute to the development of heavy substance abuse although environmental and social factors are necessary to lead someone into that problem (Barnard, 2007, p.38).            There are no genes or a set of genes that have been identified to directly cause a person to become a drug abuser or engage in drug taking activities. Genes are important in the control of behavior. If a gene is absent, a protein that controls the development or function of a psychological system may not be produced. In certain cases, the impact may be obvious, such as in case of mental retardation or related diseases. In other cases, the impact of genes on behavior may be less obvious but just as important in a person’s development. This is the case when genetic factors produce a tendency or predisposition to respond in a certain manner. Such is believed to be the influence of genes on a number of behavioral traits and disorders, including drugs and alcoholism dependence. Thus, genes are not the sole determinant of alcoholism or substance absence but their presence or absence may increase the likelihood that a person will become alcohol or drug dependent. Genetic predisposition and vulnerability            Genetic predisposition is considered important n development of drug and substance abuse. It is thought that an individual whose parent or grandparent has/had the problem of addiction are more vulnerable to addiction. This does not directly mean that people born in families where substance abuse has been a problem will have the problem but they are more susceptible to developing an addiction. It is also very difficult for them to quit once they get addicted or have more severe withdrawal symptoms.            Vulnerability to substance abuse is also influenced by demographic, environmental, behavioral and personality factors. Poverty, previous sexual abuse, rebelliousness, delinquency, incarceration and peer drug use are also issues that contribute to a person’s vulnerability without which genes have little or no influence on the person whose family has the history of addiction. Susceptibility to addiction            A person does not inherit a substance abuse but inherit susceptibility to it. Those people who are susceptible to addiction may never develop that problem unless they are exposed to the predisposing factors seen above. Note that a person who does not have a genetic factor may develop the problem and pass it on to his future generation. Genetics may have a place in the transition from recreational drugs taking behavior to established pattern of drug abuse. These genetic factors may include personality traits, mental health, psychological reactions to a drug such as the case of severity of hangovers and risk taking behavior.            Genetics may play a role in determining what kind of a drug a person is likely to abuse and which ione he/she cannot although this is also influence by the peer and environmental factors. Parental alcoholism            Parental alcoholism is known to contribute significantly to the risk of the child developing the same condition. This may occur for genetic reasons though it would also be affected by factors such as personality traits, exposure to alcohol and alcoholism lifestyle, peer pressure and mental health (Andrews, 1961, p.25).            For male children, the risk is up to eight times higher than that of female children of alcoholics. Behavior is considered the biggest factor in this development as disinhibiting and thrill-seeking traits are more in boys than in girls.            Alcoholism however, is not simply caused by genetics and no one should take that as an excuse for taking it and developing addiction. Family does not play a big role in influencing a person’s decision to use or not to use alcohol or other substances.            Adopted children have twice the risk if their biological parents were drug abusers. This suggests that for parents who aim to adopt children should research on the heath history of the child incase the child is susceptible so as to take the necessary measures. This will also help the parent in deciding the type of environment to raise the adopted child.            Biological development could also be argued to affect the brain causing long term changes in the anatomy and physiology of the brain’s neurons. Alcohol, methamphetamine, and MDMA (ecstasy) have been shown to be neurotoxic in animal studies. Unlike other cells in the body, neurons in many parts of the brain do not have the capacity to regenerate although recent studies have shown that the adult human brain can generate new neurons in the hippocampus, a part of brain responsible for memory and learning. Alcohol kills neurons in a part of brain that help create new memories (hippocampus and mammillary bodies). If those memories die, the capacity for learning decreases. Methamphetamine is toxic to dopamine containing neurons. MDMA has been shown to damage axon terminals of neurons that produce another neurotransmitter called serotonin. In addition to neurotoxic effects, drugs can significantly alter the activity of the brain. These events could be considered as a biological development of addiction since one the brain cells have been damaged, the person cannot function normally without their presence (Conrad, Martin, & ÄnggaÌŠrd, 1977, p.49). Psychological processes in the development of drug addiction            Drug addiction is behavioral and carries no connotations regarding the drugs potential adverse effects, the social acceptability of drug usage or physiological consequences of chronic drug administration. Although drug addiction is frequently has adverse medical consequences, it is usually associated with strong social disapproval.            Initial drug use can be motivated by a number of factors such as curiosity about the effects of the drug, peer pressure or psychodynamic processes can all provide sufficient motivation for experimental or circumstantial drug use. The development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and the attenuation or shutting down of other behavior. For example, under certain experimental circumstances such as social deprivation and boredom, animals allowed unlimited to self administer certain psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food, sleep and sex for continued access. 59499524447500Drug Use 109347025146000899795825500004805045831850031743658318500 Casual drug intensive drug use compulsive drug use Addiction 14560558191500Circumstantial motivational strength motivational toxicity. Drug use            The above diagram represents a continuum of drug use illustrating the progression from casual drug use to addiction. Motivational strength is the determining factor in categorizing drug use. Motivational toxicity has not been considered as a defining characteristic though it may be the most distinguishing feature.            Substance abuse is referred to as psychological dependence by the psychiatrists who are considered as a form of a disease. Another lesser known situation is the pseudo-addiction. A patient with this situation will exhibit drug seeking behavior reminiscent of psychological addiction, but they have a genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated.            Normally, psychological dependency leads to psychological withdrawal symptoms such as craving, irritability, insomnia, depression, anorexia and many others. Addiction in theory can be derived in any rewarding behavior and is believed to be strongly associated with the dopaminergic system of the brains reward system as in the case of cocaine and amphetamines. Some claim that it is a habitual means to avoid undesired activities but typically it is only so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social or psychological dysfunctions replacing normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained.            If a person is physically dependent but not psychologically dependent can have their dose slowly dropped until they are no longer physical dependent. However, if a person is psychologically dependent, there is always the risk of relapse in abuser and subsequent physical dependence. Psychological dependence is not only limited to substances; even activities and behavioral pattern can be considered addictions if they become uncontrollable for example gambling, internet addiction, sexual addiction/pornography addiction, overreacting, self-injury, compulsive buying or work addiction.            Studies have examined factors which moderate substance abuse or dependence. For example there is a significant relationship between psycho-behavioral risk factors such as tolerance to deviance, rebelliousness, achievement, perceived drug risk, familism, family church attendance and other factors and substance abuse and dependence. That relationship is moderated by familism which means the strength of the relationship is increased or decreased based on the level of familism present in a given individual.            There are several factors that are thought to mediate between psycho-behavior and substance abuse. The first factor is risk taking behavior and parental involvement. Studies have shown that children who spend more time with their parents are not likely to get involved with drugs unlike children who get to learn most of the things in life from their friends. Generally people who like taking risks in life are more susceptible in life since they tend to experiment once they become familiar with the substance.            Another example of mediating variable is depression. Depression has been seen to mediate between childhood maltreatment and subsequent substance abuse in adulthood. In other words, childhood physical abuse is associated with increased drug and alcohol in young adulthood. More specifically, depression helps to explain how childhood abuse is related to subsequent drug abuse in young adulthood. A third example of a mediating variable is an increase in externalizing symptoms. In other words, stressful life events are associated with externalizing symptoms such as aggression or hostility which can lead to peer alienation or acceptance by socially defiant peers, which could lead to increased drug use (Gray, 1999, p.75). Management Addiction severity index            Some medical systems including those of at least fifteen states of the United States refer to an Addiction Severity Index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses the problem in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social and psychiatric. Detoxification            Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification which can include doses of anxiolytics or narcotics to reduce the symptoms of withdrawal. An experimental drug, ibogaine is also proposed to treat withdrawal symptoms and craving.            Neural feedback therapy has shown statistically significant improvement in numerous researches conducted on alcoholics as well as mixed substance abuse population. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy. However, treatment approaches universal focus of an individual’s ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action (Ausubel, 1958, p.76).            Disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. This is seen as a form of psychological development of addiction to drugs.            Drugs such as stimulants cause psychical addiction which could be moderate to severe and withdrawal is purely psychological and psychosomatic. Others such as amphetamine and methamphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, sedatives and hypnotics also cause psychical addiction which could be mild to severe and physiological addiction; abrupt withdrawal could be fatal.            Some individuals self-medicate themselves with drugs such as alcohol and other drugs to avoid their intolerable states of their minds such as stress which increase the craving for drugs and relapses. Research as shown that people who survive disasters are prone to stress-related            Social development and adjustment factors also play a major role in drug abuse and addiction. An assumption of the developmental perspective is that the course of one’s life is a process in which life circumstances change, milestones are met or missed and new social roles are created while old ones are abandoned. These events and roles happen at some given stages of life although it also depends with the environment in which an individual is brought up in.            Studies of the social factors involved in drug use have mostly focused on either adolescents or young adults but a significant number of cocaine users may not initiate until they are at their middle adulthood. The majority of people enter into adult social roles on schedule. However some people enter into these roles earlier or latter that the same age peers. The developmental perspective predicts that this will lead to less than satisfactory adjustment and possibly negative consequences including drug and alcohol dependence.            Those who use alcohol and recreational drug at an early age are at a greater risk to developing addiction. The younger a person is when they experiment with drugs the more likely they are to become addicts latter on. These experimentations could be brought about by social functions and festivals in our societies especially. When the parents use alcohol and other drugs in such occasions it may be hard to control the children especially at adolescent stage (Bethesda, 2006, p.57).            Those who experience childhood trauma as well as those growing up in an environment where alcohol and other drug abuse is considered normal behavior are at even higher risk of developing addiction both of which are more or less social. For instance childhood trauma could result from tribal wars due to cultural differences in our societies where a child may be sexually and physically abused.            Some people just become victims of social classes and poverty where parents make illicit brews to sell them for a living. In this situation, the child grows up in that environment where brewing, selling and drinking the brews is the order of the day. Some of the parents who sell the drugs especially in Africa use the drugs on their children as sedatives as their do their work. In this situation the child grows up operating under the influence of drugs. This child has a very high risk of developing addiction latter on.            It is also believed that is a person grew up in the environment where his/her self esteem is suppressed are also at a risk of developing addiction. Also those people who find it difficult to manage antisocial behavior tend to ‘hind’ in drugs which may eventually lead to addiction for example gays. Poor parenting where children are exposed to social media at an early age could also be a motivating social factor to use drugs. Children watch movies which suggest that the only way to operate normally is under the influence of drugs. Such a child is likely to experiment. As much as poverty may contribute to the problem of drug use and eventually addiction, availability of money to buy the drugs may also contribute a lot. When a person is especially at an adolescent stage is exposed to the drugs may be by peers, availability of money will be the next factor. Other social factors that may lead to drugs and eventually addiction include: feeling of insecurity i n relationships, attention seekers, those who find delayed gratification and difficult impulsiveness (Washington, 1980, p.39). Addiction as a learned behavior            It is suggested that people may fall into addiction because of learned behavior. This would explain why those who grow up around substance abusers are more likely to become addicts themselves. Learning theory is based on the idea people don’t have to experience every behavior in order to decide whether to adopt it. If it is observed to bring reward and satisfaction to another person, it can be enough to convince another person to copy it. According to this theory, the answer to addiction is to unlearn the maladaptive behavior.            Studies have shown that the addictive power of a drug has been exaggerated and that interest in drugs diminishes in both laboratory rats and people when alternative rein forcers of an enriched environment are offered to the subject. Rather than addiction, poverty and crimes being inevitable consequences of drugs; drugs are more likely to be a consequence of poverty and crime.            Acute or recreational use of most psychoactive drugs causes the release and prolonged action of dopamine and serotonin within the reward circuit.            In conclusion, drug and substance abuse is more of ones choice than the motivating factors that are involved. No one should blame the biology (genes) and other factor s such as life events and the society for his/her involvement with drugs. Everyone should be responsible of choices they make in life considering the damage such that is posed by addiction both socially and economically (Horgan, 2001, p.76). References Andrews, M. F. (1961). Creativity and psychological health;. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. Ausubel, D. P. (1958). Drug addiction: physiological, psychological, and sociological aspects. New York: Random House. Barnard, M. (2007). Drug addiction and families. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Bellenir, K. (1996). Substance abuse sourcebook: basic health-related information about the abuse of legal and illegal substances such as alcohol, tobacco, prescription drugs, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin ; and including facts about substance abuse prevention strategies, intervention methods, treatment and recovery programs, and a section addressing the special problems related to substance abuse during pregnancy. Detroit, MI.: Omnigraphics. Bier, W. C. (1962). Problems in addiction: alcohol and drug addiction,. New York: Fordham University Press. Cohen, S. (1985). The substance abuse problems. New York: Haworth Press. Conrad, H. T., Martin, W. R., & ÄnggaÌŠrd, E. (1977). Drug addiction. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Gossop, M. (2003). Drug addiction and its treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gray, P. (1999). Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Heyman, G. M. (2009). Addiction: a disorder of choice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Hollander, B. (2012). Addiction. New York: Rosen Pub.. Horgan, C. M. (2001). Substance abuse: the nation’s number one health problem : key indicators for policy update. Princeton, NJ: The Foundation. Lewis, J. M. (1976). No single thread: psychological health in family systems. New York: Brunner/Mazel. McDougall, W. (1921). An introduction to social psychology, (14th ed.). Boston: J.W. Luce & co.. McGhee, L. K. (2011). Drug addiction. San Diego, CA: ReferencePoint Press. Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Pathways of addiction opportunities in drug abuse research. (1996). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Self, D. W., & Staley, J. K. (2010). Behavioral neuroscience of drug addiction. Heidelberg: Springer. Singh, J. M., Miller, L. H., & Lal, H. (19721974). Drug addiction. Mount Kisco, N.Y.: Futura Pub. Co.. Sora, J. W. (1997). Substance abuse. New York: H.W. Wilson. Bethesda, Md.: (2006). National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health. Washington, D. (1980). The facts about â€Å"drug abuse†. New York: Free Press. Source document

Liberal and Republican Citizenship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Liberal and Republican Citizenship - Essay Example The second, the citizen is considered a political agent; he actively is involved in political activities. The third states that the citizens are a member of a political organization with distinct characteristics. Thus, to enhance cohesion in the society one has to display a tremendous sense of belonging to a political community. , The citizen enjoys rights depending on the political they belong in and this gives individual some respect too. The two models of citizenship include the liberal and the republican. The republican sources are found in the writings of authors like Machiavelli, Aristotle, and Cicero. The main principle of the model of citizenship is the aspect of civic self rule (Dworkin 76). Aristotle characterized it as the ability to be in charge and to be ruled. The fact that they co authored through general will, the writing of the laws this makes them freer and legitimate of the law. In the real sense, being a republican one is a political agent. On the other hand, the liberal model traces its roots back in the Roman Empire. Liberal citizenship meant being protected by the law instead of being in the process. Being liberal was just a legal status than a fact in daily living like the republican. It may mean that the membership is in a community that shares law or has common law. It is still common. This is a distinctive characteristic of the liberal citizenship. Other factors that make liberal citizenship are that it is a legal status and that people are free from interference by other authorities or even other individuals. The liberal tradition majorly started back in the 17th century. Citizens with it exercise the freedoms they have mainly in private associations other that a political community. The liberal citizen is in charge of contemporary constitutional freedoms. The civic virtues are evident in many theories; they can be categorized in various ways. This includes community citizen virtues, self governance citizen virtues and of course the one in discussion, in this paper liberal citizen virtues (Macedo 100). These virtues are autonomy, cooperation, obedience to law, participation, respect for rights, deliberative excellence, responsibility, restraint, allegiance to liberal democratic community and vigilance. A dutiful citizen accomplishes tasks successfully by coordinating with others, and he also helps back in return to the good deeds he receives from others too. Cooperation is extremely healthy in a community as it helps the community grow socially. Although there is the aspect of conditioned cooperation where someone expects the same in return if they help, but also this is usually in the effort to obey laws (Macedo 108). Participation as a virtue is portrayed by the active involvement of the citizen to politics and being well informed and interested in the same. Part of the participatory actions is making justice claims, registering voters, running for presidency, being part of the neighborhood associations and v oting. The excellent participation depends highly on the initiative of individuals and their interest in participating. The purpose of being participative is that it is an excellent way to help the community effortlessly (Dworkin 103). Vigilance is another virtue; the virtuous citizen should be able to decide they want in power and refuse to be harassed by those in power. The

The corporate social responsibility practices Case Study

The corporate social responsibility practices - Case Study Example Rasgas firm is the second leading firm in the production and supply of gas to both the local and international markets. The firm has been operation for the last 14years and it has grown its links with various stakeholders which involve the communities it serves. With this strong links, the necessity of Corporate Social Responsibility is inevitable. This report seeks to explore various aspects of Corporate Social Responsibility with a bias on the necessity of information to companies and its benefits to human resource development. As a point of departure, like any world leading organization, the aspect of Corporate Social Responsibility is inevitable. The organization has endeavored to position its CRS policy on four foremost cornerstones, which include education, community, environment, information and health. The four aspects are aligned with the Qatar National Vision 2030. The Corporate Social Responsibility has over some time now played a critical role in strengthening the company’s ties with the rest of the community. The organization believes that through a clear policy on CSR well integrated with the National Development Strategy, it will positively engage the community through activities which involves practical assistance, donation of equipment, employee volunteer and financial contributions (Porter, 2000). These activities work towards increasing awareness of the organization’s produced and these efforts are reflected in the overall revenues and profit margins. In the case of education which is attributed to acquiring information the organization has endeavored to support numerous talented students to the UK Universities for both undergraduate and Masters programmes. These programs and activities are aimed at attaining maximum level of sustainability. In the case of the CSR information to companies and its benefits relative to human development, the Rasgas firm has a big role to play in a bid to update other

Diseases Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Diseases - Term Paper Example (2). The parasitic protozoa species of the plasmodium genus is responsible for malaria in humans making it the vector for transmission of malaria. The primary mode of transmission of the infection is through the bite of a female anopheles species of mosquito. Severe malaria that can lead to severe morbidity or even death is normally attributed to Plasmodium falciparum. Though malaria can also be transmitted during blood transfusion or between mother and child during pregnancy, these modes of transmission are found to occur rarely. (2). The plasmodia are present in the saliva of the infected anopheles mosquito and pass it on to the human host at the time of drawing blood from the human as its meal. The plasmodia target the red blood cells and enter them and use the hemoglobin and other proteins in the cells for nutrition. This results in RBC cystoloysis leading to the toxic metabolic byproducts entering the blood stream and producing the symptoms of malaria, which resemble flu and include chills, headache, myalgias, and malaise. Jaundice, anemia and kidney failure are the more severe results of malaria, which can progress to coma and death. The more severe consequences of malaria can be avoided through proper treatment. (2). Chloroquine phosphate remains the drug of choice in the treatment of malaria. (2). However the treatment of malaria is not easy because of resistance to chloroquine and evaluation of resistance by the infecting strain is essential to decide on the anti-malarial agent to be used. Where resistance is encountered use of other forms of quinine or a range of other anti-malarial drugs capable of arresting the infection would have to be considered for use. (3). Filariasis occurs in both humans and animals. The nematode parasites of the order Filariidae or filariae are responsible for the infection. Only

Marketing Communications Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing Communications - Assignment Example It is clear from the discussion that in today’s changing environment of marketing, there is a need for marketing communications since markets have been fragmented and very few companies go for mass marketing. The fragmentation of the media is also taking place (Grunig and Hunt, 1984, p. 36). The development of information transfer and technology improvement has caused this segmentation of each mass market. Hence, it is necessary to target each segment and to reach out to these segments particularly. The main forms of marketing communications include advertisement, public relations, sales promotion, personal selling, and direct marketing (Kotler and Keller, 2006, p. 605). These marketing strategies have to be implemented by a company in a manner of integration so that each of the strategies complements another one. Since nowadays people have access to all kinds of media in the form of visuals, audio, and the Internet there are loads of ways in which messages come to the custome rs from varied sources. These messages may be conflicting at times. The various kinds of promotional activities of a number of companies in the same sector can confuse the consumer in a lot of ways. The brand images that are set in the minds of the customers can also be vague. This problem particularly occurs in the functional specialists who handle various forms of communications for marketing that are independent of each other. Though these days the Internet is used as the most popular medium for the exchange of information, it cannot be the sole medium for promoting a brand. There should be a right mix of other forms of communications like the interaction with the customers and traditional forms of branding which need to be blended well to get the final result successfully. The right marketing message has to reach the public, and for that, the coordination of all the marketing channels is essential (Stern and El-Ansary, 1995, p. 92). The message that would be transmitted to the c ustomers has to be consistent, clear, and compelling in order to convert. For example, when Coca-Cola wants to launch a new flavor of soft drink that it would like the youth to consume, the company has to devise the marketing communication strategies in such a way that it reaches the youth in the most effective way possible. Thus, the strategists have to go for those kinds of media that the younger generation has the maximum access to like the Internet. The main communication activities have to be done in the colleges and the eateries which this generation visits. Any kind of marketing communication would not be successful unless the managers have adequate knowledge about the working of the communication process. There are various steps to this. First of all the target audience has to be identified and the basic questions have to be asked regarding the decision making drivers of the target market. There will be two parties of this communication process, the sender and the receiver. It has to be decided how and where the message will be communicated (Bowersox and Morash, 1989, p. 21). The objective of this kind of communication has to be understood and the message will have to be designed accordingly. Generally, the AIDA models are used for this purpose. Each of these communication messages should have an emotional, rational, and/or moral appeal to touch the minds of the customers.  

Video review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Video review - Assignment Example Being already in his fifties da Vinci painted Mona Lisa, a portrait of a Florentine merchant Francesco del Giocondos wife, which explains why the painting is often called La Giaconda in Italy. Mona, in turn, is a contraction from Italian "ma donna", which means "my lady". Leonardo never handed over the portrait to del Giocondo because he probably never considered it finished. Years later Napoleon took Mona Lisa to his bedroom; it was also stolen from Louvre Museum once, which finally brought it a worldwide fame. But eventually the portrait got back to Louvre, where it stays to date. 2. King Tuthankhamuns tomb is full of ancient artworks devoted to this legendary Egyptian ruler. The Golden mask is one of them. Preserved in the Museum of Cairo it shows its visitors the luxury and sophisticated taste of King Tut. It is a masterpiece that is almost impossible to copy. Seven coffins of the King Tuts tomb bear the embossment of Tuthankhamuns face, each being an artwork of exquisite beauty. The Golden Throne is another masterpiece containing relief images of King and Queen, which tells us the story of their love. On top of these wonders, there are over one hundred pieces of the finest jewelry found inside the tomb. Art in ancient Egypt was made for religious purposes and, apart from its beauty, reveals a lot about the ancient times that have been long

Business Research Individual Work 1 Week 6 Essay

Business Research Individual Work 1 Week 6 - Essay Example However, sales promotions are commonly used when a business urgently needs to shorten the life cycle exhibited by a certain product or when there is the need to increase the usage of a certain product (Soguero-Ruiz et al, 2012). According to business experts who have sought to analyze the effect of different marketing strategies, sales promotions have exhibited both long term and short term effects. Understanding these types of effects is critical to any business as there is a salient need to assess the effect of the sales promotion carried out. In the specific case of a tissue manufacturer, ranking fourth in the market share, it needs to understand the potential effect of sales promotion activities. According to the plans of the company, two types of coupons are to be tested in the months of November and December. A fifty cents-off coupon would be implemented in November in two identified stores, namely St. Louis and Kansas City. In December, the company would experiment with a â€Å"buy one, get one free† coupon. In a bid to establish both the long term and the short term effects of the two coupons, the tissue manufacturer would need to carry out an appropriate experiment. Experts in this field have sought to describe effective methodologies of assessing the effects of sales promotions on sales (Magee, 2003). One of the effective methodologies that have been described is the use of data scanners in the target stores that would provide a database of all the sales of the intended brand. This methodology would be effective in the case of the tissue manufacturer. In the month of November, data scanners would be used to keep records of sales in the target stores. The same would happen when testing the â€Å"buy one get one free† coupon in December. After the data collection process, the analysis would follow. In the experiment to be carried out, the fifty cent-off coupon as well as

Compass Records Essay Example for Free

Compass Records Essay Backgrounds Alison Brown and her husband Gary West, who were both musicians, founded compass Records in 1995. Compass Records is a small independent recording company that centered on folk and roots music. Compass Records occupies only a tiny part of the 32-billion dollar music recording industry, competing with some multi-national corporations dominating 86% of the business, such as Sony/BMG, Universal Music Group, Warner Music Group, and EMI. However, the industry has witnessed a stagnant growth since 1995, with a decline on annual sales at a compound annual growth rate of 5%. By 2005, Compass Records had grown to include nearly 50 artists under contract and were averaging around 20 releases a year. With 40% of its albums selling over 5,000 units, Compass Records turned a profit on 80% of its titles in 2005. Brown and West also acquired a $100,000 recording studio in May 2004 in order to give the label and its artists more flexibility in the creative process and save $500 a day on studio rental. Problems * (General) Licensing vs. Producing and Own   * Compass Records has to decide between licensing the finished recordings, which is less risky and less expensive with a finite life to the future cash flows associated with the recordings, and producing and owning a master copy, which will be more risky and more expensive with an infinite life to the future cash flows associated with the recordings. * (Specific) How to maximize firm value through the Roscommon decision * Whether to license Adair Roscommon’s music or own the master recording outright.

Successful IT Project Implementation

Successful IT Project Implementation Projects can be done successfully when they meet criteria such as delivering it on time, be on a budget and if the system works as required. It is not always easy to meet all these criteria. Many projects fail on one more criteria and they cannot be delivered successfully. 1 Unrealistic Time Estimate Mistakes done during the estimation causes problems to the project. The time on task is the time to complete it without any interruptions, whereas the duration of the task is the time taken to actually complete the task including any interruptions. Using time instead of the duration is the problem made by project managers as they cannot set the realistic time. The manager should think of any potential errors and difficulties that can extend the deadline of the task to make sure that the deadline of each task and then a project can be met. Another problem with time estimating is that the project timescale is too long and then the system which is delivered is not longer in use by an organization. Managers need to deliver the project quickly. The plan is set without considering the size of work that needs to be done to ensure delivery of the project. As a result of it, these systems can be delivered late or only partly of the facilities that were asked for. Real example: The group is doing the project which the delivery time was estimated by the manager. The manager found out that the team is weeks behind on a project which needed to be completed yesterday. The team is behind because they did not follow the project log and some people in the group were taking too long to complete particular tasks. To finish the project as soon as possible, the team has to do overtimes. 2 Unclear Goals and Objectives Without clear goals and objectives it is almost sure that the projects will fail as the result user requirements will not be clear. Sometimes the goal of the project may not be clear and this is because the requirements gathering was not enough, sometimes goals and objectives might be unclear because project stackholders lack the experience to describe what they really require. Defining clear requirements for a project can take time and lots of communication. Real example: The project is to create a computer customer relationship management system to improve the quality and efficiency of customer care. Here, the user requirements are not clear and the team is not sure how computerized customer relationship management system will be used to improve customer care. This is left for the project participants, the scope and schedule of the project cannot possibly be accurate because their objectives are unclear and any participants understanding can be not accurate. 3 Lack of User Involvement To be able to complete a project within the criteria, user has to be involved in the project to make sure that the requirements are clear. Without user involvement nobody in the business feels committed to a system and so, they are not able to complete the system properly. To be able to finish the project with a success, the management and user need to be involved from the beginning to the end of the project. This requires time and effort, and when the people in a business are already stretched, finding time for a new project is not high on their priorities. Real example: The business needs to create a Database for a user. In this case, the user gave a part of the requirements, but these requirements are not enough for the company to start the project. This is where the company needs to gather more information on the system required from the user. The problem with the projects also occurs when the business wants to test the system against to the user requirements than the user will see that the system does not meet its needs. [P2] Describe different tools and methodologies that are available to support the project manager There are different tools and methodologies which are used in order to support and prevent of failure to the project manager. They are used in order to track the project and to follow the time schedule which was planned. Gantt Chart A Gantt chart is a graphical representation of the duration of tasks against the progression of time. It is useful tool for planning and scheduling projects. Gantt chart is used to plan how long the project should take, it lays out the order of tasks which need to be completed and it also say when the tasks must be completed. It is also helpful for monitoring the project. It shows what should be achieved in any point in time. In a Gantt chart, each task takes up one row with dates running across the horizontal axis in increments of days, weeks or months. The bars in the Gantt chart visually show the start and end dates of each task in a project. Tasks may run sequentially, in parallel or overlap each other. There are some software which help to create a Gantt chart. For example, SmartDraw. It has some very useful features, such us automatic formatting and quick start templates. Example of my own gantt chart Microsoft Project Microsoft Project is software used by project managers to help them manage projects. It gives them an intuitive and easier way to simple be more productive and to complete projects with the success. Within The MS Project the project can be managed week by week or day by day. It depends of the user preference. MS project keeps all the tasks in order, which help the user to know the time schedule for each tasks. Resources allocation Entering resources is one of the easiest steps in Project; it is done in a resources dialog box. When the resources are entered into project, user can select the task and then select the resource. Example: http://pubs.logicalexpressions.com/pub0009/UserImages/AI776.jpg When it will be assigned the tick in the cell next to the resource will be displayed. When assigned, there will be a Tick in the cell next to the resource name, the Units will register the default setting of 100%, and the resource name will appear to the right of the Gantt bar. If more or less than 100% is wanted, enter the number required before assigning the resource. / Example from http://pubs.logicalexpressions.com/pub0009/LPMArticle.asp?ID=213 http://www.allocatus.com/Home/en/Images/ms_project.png [M1] Explain, using examples, how it is possible to minimise the changes of project failing It is better to avoid the project failing rather than cure it. There are many ways of avoiding failure; this can be done by keeping time schedule, executing effective team communication and using project management strategy. Project Management Risk Risk management is a process in which any project risks that can occur to the business are identified, analyses and mitigated. Effective risk management is a multistep process. The Risk Management Plan: Risk Identification In this stage, we identify and name the risks. The best approach is a workshop with business and IT people to carry out the identification. Risks should be defined in two parts. The first is the cause of the situation (Vendor not meeting deadline, Business users not available, etc.). The second part is the impact (Budget will be exceeded, Milestones not achieved, etc.). Risks Quantification Risk need to be quantified in two dimensions. The impact of the risk needs to be assessed and the probability of the risk occurring needs to be assessed. Risk Response A risk response plan should include the strategy and action items to address the strategy. The actions should include what needs to be done, who is doing it, and when it should be completed. Risk Monitoring and Control The final step is to continually monitor risks to identify any change in the status, or if they turn into an issue. It is best to hold regular risk reviews to identify actions outstanding, risk probability and impact, remove risks that have passed, and identify new risks. Example 1: Unrealistic Time Estimate To make sure that the deadline to finish the project can be met, the realistic time should be estimate. If the manager will give the team not enough time to finish the project, they will not be able to delivery on time. To avoid any of problems related to time and deadline, the project manager should use one of the project plan tools which is used to plan and then monitor how the project goes, for example, Gantt chart. Example 2: Unclear Goals and Objectives The goals and objectives have to be clearly understood by every member of team, the project manager should clearly outlined the objectives for the project. It is important that the goals are clear so the project can be delivered to the user with the wanted quality. The scope will become more refined as a project progress, but it should always remain within the initial parameters defined. To avoid failure such as unclear goals and as a result scope creep, companies can use change management, this controls information gathereted and any changes to the project scope. This will help the team to know what the goals of the project are, even if some of the requirements changes during the planning or implementation. Example 3: Lack of user involvement It is important that the user is involved in a project as well as a projects management team. The user needs to give all the requirements of the project. User also has to participate during the implementation as all the information that he needs to be added as essential as this stage. Senior management need to continuously support the project to make it clear to staff it is a priority. [M2] Describe critical path analysis (CPA) and explain with an example how critical paths can be identified Critical paths analysis is powerful tools that help to schedule and manage complex projects. It is mainly used to find the time taken to complete gives project, time takes for each task and the earliest possible time to complete the project.CPA helps to plan all tasks that must be completed as part of a project. They act as the basis for preparation of a schedule, and of resource planning. During management of a project, they allow to monitor achievement of project goals. They help to see where remedial action needs to be taken to get a project back on course. Advantages The benefit of using CPA within the planning process is to help to develop and test the plan to ensure that it is robust. Critical Path Analysis formally identifies tasks which must be completed on time for the whole project to be completed on time. It also identifies which tasks can be delayed if resource needs to be reallocated, to catch up on missed or overrunning tasks. Another benefit of CPA is that it helps to identify the minimum length of time needed to complete a project. It identifies which project steps a user should do faster to complete the project within the available time. Disadvantages The disadvantage of CPA, if a user use it as the technique by which your project plans are communicated and managed against, is that the relation of tasks to time is not as immediately obvious as with Gantt Charts. This can make them more difficult to understand. How to use the tool With the Critical Path Analysis is that a user cannot start some activities until others are finished. These activities need to be completed in a sequence, with each stage being more-or-less completed before the next stage can begin. These are sequential activities. Other activities are not dependent on completion of any other tasks. You can do these at any time before or after a particular stage is reached. These are non-dependent or parallel tasks. Drawing a CPA Step 1. List all activities in the plan For each activity, show the earliest start date, estimated length of time it will take, and whether it is parallel or sequential. If tasks are sequential, show which stage they depend on. Step 2. Plot the activities as a circle and arrow diagram CPA are presented using circle and arrow diagrams. In these, circles show events within the project, such as the start and finish of tasks. The number shown in the left hand side of the circle allow to identify each one easily. An arrow running between two event circles shows the activity needed to complete that task. A description of the task is written underneath the arrow. The length of the task is shown above it. All arrows run left to right. This example shows that activity B can start after A is completes. It also shows that activity F can be started after D and E are completed. The network diagram shows the EST for each task. It is conventional to start at 0. EST was calculated by adding at the EST form the previous task and the number of weeks that is takes to finish the tasks. LFT was done in the other way by looking at the LFT of the previous task and the duration of the text. Then subtracting the number form left to right. The CPM for this diagram is A B D F G. This is found by looking at the nodes EST and LFT, the one with the same EST and LFT identify the critical path.

Studies on the Production of Fruits in India

Studies on the Production of Fruits in India Studies on the production of fruits in India with special reference to Jammu and Kashmir Abstract Fruits provide desirable health benefits besides nutrition due to presence of various essential vitamins and minerals. Many important antioxidants are present in fruits that help the body to constantly clean up the toxic wastes. They boost the immunity and provide resistance against various ailments and certain chronic diseases. They have cracking potential to increase the economic impact of the state, country at local, national and international level. India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world with production of 81.29 million metric tonnes from an area of 6.98 million hectares for the year 2012-13. Jammu and Kashmir, the northern most state of India have different environmental and topographical conditions than rest of the country, produces many horticultural products. It is the largest producer of apples in India, 77% of apple production in India belongs to Jammu and Kashmir. After harvest considerable losses occur due to ignorance, method of storage, postharvest handling and absence of postharvest processing. Awareness about nutritional, environment and economic valves, improved cultivation, use of appropriate postharvest handling strategies are important to minimize the losses. Keywords: antioxidant, area, production, postharvest, horticulture Introduction Nutritional importance of fruits Fruits contain a number of essential minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers and play essential role in human nutrition especially as a source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamine (vitamin B1), niacin (vitamin B3), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), folacin (vitamin B9), tocopherol (vitamin E), riboflavin (vitamin A), calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, potassium (Wargovich, 2000). There contribution is estimated at 91% of vitamin C, 48% of thiamine, 30% of folacin, 27% of pyridoxine, 17% of vitamin B1, 15% of vitamin B3, 19% of Iron, 16% of magnesium, 9% of calories (Quebedeaux and Elis, 1990; Kader, 2001). Fruits and vegetables in human diet are strongly associated with the reduced risk of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, Alzheimer’ disease, cataracts, strokes and other chronic diseases (Prior and Cao, 2000; Southon, 2000; Liu, 2003). Some components of fruits and vegetables are strong antioxidants and function in metabolic activation and detoxification of various carcinogens (Kader, 2001). Economic importance of fruits India comprises several agro-ecological regions with diverse soil and climate types, which provide an ample opportunity to grow variety of crops. A considerable degree of crop diversification has been experienced since the green revolution. The change in cropping pattern is towards the horticultural and commercial crops (Mittal, 2007). Horticultural crops form significant part of total agricultural production of the country and are key drivers of economic development. In India 65-70% of the population earns their livelihood through agriculture (Economic survey, 2007-08). Fruits contribute around 31% of horticultural production (Vedamurthy and Pandey, 2010). The increase in domestic and international demand for fruits in increasing day by day thereby increasing the economic importance of fruits. Contribution of horticultural crops towards agricultural GDP was about 29.5% for the year 2007-08 (Economic survey, 2007-08). Fruit Production in India India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits after Brazil that contributes 11.80% of the total world’s fruit production with a production of 68.46 million tonnes from an area of 6.10 million hectares annually (Kumar and Singh, 2010). In India the major fruit producing states are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Punjab, Orissa and Utter Pradesh Factors leading to decrease in fruit production The major losses of fruits are estimated at 35-40% due to improper post harvest management that is about 40,000 crores per year. It so causes the wastage of energy, labour and inputs involved in horticultural production (Nayak and Mukhopadhyay, 2008). So there is a strong need for the post harvest management of these perishable fruits. Post harvest management strategies are applied to the horticultural produce after harvest to increase their shelf life during storage, processing, packaging and marketing to meet the nutritional requirements of the people. Majors that can be taken to overcome the losses Table 1: World fruit production in metric tonnes Fruit 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Afghanistan 794,600 816,730 645,870 706,224 847,900 Albania 118,400 151,400 167,782 141,489 370,192 Algeria 1,995,071 1,201,968 978,664 1,428,102 3,535,544 American Samoa 3,850 1,642 1,463 1,982 1,440 Angola 430,000 427,000 405,000 447,000 608,100 Antigua and Barbuda 6,749 8,540 8,511 9,518 8,570 Argentina 5,217,423 6,353,140 5,881,204 7,174,114 7,445,843 Armenia .. .. .. 244,352 351,405 Australia 2,114,328 2,168,155 2,384,181 3,084,329 3,312,766 Austria 1,096,963 1,082,399 964,144 1,091,955 734,800 Azerbaijan .. .. .. 553,959 891,021 Bahamas 9,175 12,409 11,077 26,312 37,000 Bahrain 17,580 42,000 10,150 21,465 22,090 Bangladesh 1,407,439 1,304,358 1,332,490 1,361,000 3,954,957 Barbados 2,490 2,610 2,850 2,560 4,090 Belarus .. .. .. 299,100 790,071 Belgium .. .. .. 786,210 571,630 Belize 35,405 83,428 141,662 381,421 376,790 Benin 121,300 142,300 180,662 163,023 398,700 Bermuda 565 500 300 336 370 Bhutan 23,350 29,450 64,535 64,710 60,900 Bolivia 469,540 555,635 783,195 999,658 944,470 Bosnia and Herzegovina .. .. .. 80,273 321,265 Botswana 6,318 9,150 11,545 10,600 5,920 Brazil 11,465,728 19,473,797 29,823,592 36,986,742 39,286,781 British Virgin Islands 309 550 180 440 520 Brunei Darussalam 3,445 4,810 5,024 6,133 7,535 Bulgaria 2,300,776 1,897,597 1,649,569 739,549 396,332 Burkina Faso 41,600 55,200 69,831 90,954 96,450 Burundi 1,247,000 1,168,000 1,633,000 1,598,146 238,464 Cambodia 270,050 122,340 239,050 321,700 355,900 Cameroon 983,457 1,713,340 1,756,896 1,994,151 3,878,820 Canada 628,394 795,589 772,777 823,210 668,968 Cape Verde 13,824 12,600 14,615 16,778 20,800 Cayman Islands 516 583 314 558 325 Central African Republic 129,820 168,800 201,900 259,399 274,550 Chad 83,000 92,000 106,423 98,068 117,500 Chile 1,061,240 1,633,588 2,638,980 3,890,170 5,673,600 China 4,973,710 8,416,030 20,952,155 64,503,111 122,184,944 Colombia 2,761,100 3,897,150 4,676,996 6,851,039 7,989,940 Comoros 28,000 35,600 51,132 62,615 47,800 Congo 68,700 113,070 135,844 222,622 263,800 Congo, DR 2,134,500 2,627,600 3,450,844 2,426,781 2,540,724 Cook Islands 15,850 12,525 4,782 3,677 1,526 Costa Rica 1,299,210 1,337,764 2,410,266 3,810,786 4,620,366 Croatia .. .. .. 540,881 458,235 Cuba 306,012 853,467 1,535,526 2,251,114 1,794,869 Cyprus 432,319 344,802 393,246 282,984 185,661 Czech Republic .. .. .. 562,195 181,221 CÃ ´te dIvoire 1,001,352 1,464,548 1,569,720 2,347,117 2,187,000 Denmark 163,961 146,608 102,268 54,840 68,500 Djibouti 0 0 1,956 3,457 3,185 Dominica 63,100 35,760 96,771 69,805 53,830 Dominican Republic 1,169,659 1,340,100 1,599,980 1,032,324 2,196,055 Ecuador 3,781,542 3,966,510 4,524,825 7,670,506 9,292,075 Egypt 1,450,330 2,284,135 4,617,539 6,966,124 9,581,146 El Salvador 194,450 251,282 291,084 302,098 439,319 Equatorial Guinea 13,500 10,500 40,600 51,039 69,200 Eritrea .. .. .. 3,800 4,400 Estonia .. .. .. 26,538 5,071 Ethiopia .. .. .. 703,202 683,500 Fiji 8,612 10,685 12,846 18,006 18,628 Finland 62,700 104,000 21,092 18,661 16,793 France 17,040,995 14,601,267 11,942,965 11,265,355 8,691,815 French Guiana 4,540 2,021 6,763 15,707 17,610 French Polynesia 2,544 3,171 7,741 9,728 15,483 Gabon 123,300 190,900 240,001 294,226 324,710 Gambia 3,000 3,500 3,517 5,607 8,600 Georgia .. .. .. 471,917 260,000 Germany 5,367,781 4,750,807 4,854,934 5,290,538 2,200,529 Ghana 1,034,097 978,300 923,900 2,391,420 4,363,630 Greece 3,003,094 3,519,917 3,922,607 4,151,486 3,230,090 Grenada 34,255 27,518 25,811 16,631 14,600 Guadeloupe 132,280 88,577 116,416 142,661 87,390 Guam 747 1,089 1,873 2,380 3,220 Guatemala 659,100 753,791 1,150,517 1,973,393 3,951,700 Guinea 545,000 673,100 855,803 997,310 1,218,700 Guinea-Bissau 36,700 46,750 61,403 79,888 87,050 Guyana 42,167 32,710 50,249 73,963 33,615 Haiti 799,800 1,003,600 1,016,171 1,005,481 976,660 Honduras 1,499,923 1,646,227 1,388,235 783,281 1,357,185 Hungary 2,030,432 2,531,215 2,306,901 1,726,674 1,124,272 Iceland 13 10 11 17 30 India 15,786,680 20,357,397 27,717,104 43,000,880 84,791,100 Indonesia 3,576,000 4,268,214 5,973,043 8,412,930 14,867,762 Iran 1,784,725 3,144,125 7,163,554 12,287,684 12,126,041 Iraq 542,880 1,155,020 1,523,030 1,739,200 1,094,014 Ireland 32,500 23,200 23,000 26,334 48,170 Israel 1,548,475 1,926,160 2,002,746 1,263,269 1,278,486 Italy 19,349,138 21,429,443 17,112,381 17,989,619 16,907,895 Jamaica 396,869 332,255 360,046 425,044 363,608 Japan 5,552,900 6,227,900 4,905,691 3,820,890 2,898,550 Jordan 61,370 86,155 255,408 238,727 279,918 Kazakhstan .. .. .. 263,490 222,110 Kenya 534,110 1,126,610 1,303,636 2,148,118 2,933,336 Kiribati 3,370 4,530 5,000 5,649 9,400 Korea, North 218,000 848,000 1,305,000 1,333,157 1,559,200 Korea, South 429,259 933,406 1,917,459 2,625,572 2,733,554 Kuwait 470 1,113 1,933 11,250 18,353 Kyrgyzstan .. .. .. 188,139 197,601 Laos 75,650 90,300 128,500 192,967 238,200 Latvia .. .. .. 53,992 14,608 Lebanon 561,776 721,100 1,185,000 845,600 976,290 Lesotho 14,000 15,000 17,709 14,500 14,700 Liberia 98,020 120,200 106,779 170,662 208,700 Libya 82,132 179,145 311,644 314,710 386,050 Liechtenstein 120 70 130 156 180 Lithuania .. .. .. 112,500 47,719 Luxembourg .. .. .. 33,632 26,652 Macedonia .. .. .. 407,811 452,643 Madagascar 623,775 733,033 796,700 890,600 941,460 Malawi 260,000 374,950 481,428 755,498 1,032,600 Malaysia 865,300 938,073 1,108,638 1,210,733 1,144,862 Maldives 6,050 7,900 6,350 9,560 10,051 Mali 98,100 124,800 155,060 251,993 814,100 Malta 11,871 10,563 13,729 6,457 10,085 Martinique 184,928 116,929 284,295 355,478 208,860 Mauritania 17,300 15,200 12,087 24,900 23,000 Mauritius 8,948 3,583 8,370 13,076 21,285 Mexico 4,478,970 7,617,469 9,371,183 13,306,460 15,255,598 Micronesia, FM .. .. .. 3,088 3,830 Moldova .. .. .. 953,163 792,435 Mongolia 2,250 3,200 400 255 578 Montenegro .. .. .. .. 74,338 Montserrat 1,129 800 629 880 830 Morocco 1,466,620 1,670,800 2,008,842 2,680,770 3,292,411 Mozambique 304,470 322,500 381,400 290,768 368,810 Myanmar 707,502 806,590 950,342 1,416,000 2,135,100 Namibia 6,500 8,000 9,839 16,413 42,225 Nauru 140 200 255 336 340 Nepal 112,000 135,000 413,310 844,633 1,276,791 Netherlands 678,466 618,730 561,700 710,936 671,390 New Caledonia 9,000 11,634 2,576 3,723 3,733 New Zealand 241,574 356,774